IBRAHIM SA'ADU a.k.a gco (B Sc. Sociology)
The Meaning of Sociology
The word sociology was coined by the French
Philosopher-Sociologist, Auguste Comte in 1837 (Peil:1977). Comte combined
theLatin word “socio” (meaning society) with the Greek word “logy”(meaning
science) to arrive at the term sociology which he defines as thescience of
society. To Comte, a science of the society was possible. Thisscience should
base its findings on systematic observation andclassification of facts rather
than casual, off hand observation, tradition,speculation and rumor. Sociology
therefore is the scientific study ofhuman, environmental, material and
ideological components of society. It analyses human ideas, behavior, grouping,
organizations, administration,law, crime and punishment. Human problems of
hunger, disease,homelessness, unemployment, ignorance,
divorce and violence engage theattention of Sociologist.
The founding fathers of
Sociology such asAuguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber
andTalcott Parsons have various ideas as to the focus of sociology. Comtewas of
the opinion that sociology should focus on social statics and socialdynamics.
Social statics refers to structures and functions of subsystems,institutions
and persons. Social dynamics refers to the changes occasionedto institutions
over time. The task of sociologists is therefore to makeunderstandable the
fundamental laws of nature and why people behave theway they do under different
prevailing conditions.Comte formulated the law of three stages of societal
growth i.e.theological, metaphysical and scientific.
The theological stage is
theprimitive or preliterate state where the powers of priest and the
clergydominated human society and explanations to events were purelyreligious.
The metaphysical stage
marks the period of enlightenment andreformation as well as reasoning. People
began to seriously challenge thereligious explanations for social phenomenon.
The enlightenment
scholarswere pre-occupied with seeking answers to questions of nature
throughreasoning based on overt facts. The scientific stage is the stage
ofindividual revolution and scientific discoveries as well as
technologicalgrowth and development.
Following Comte, Herbert
Spencer regards sociology as the study of society and likens society to a
biological organism with interdependentbut inter-related parts functioning
independently and interdependently soas to ensure the survival of the entire
system. Society as a system has subsystemscomprising of institutions and
persons with status and rolesnecessary for their existence and survival.
Durkheim considers thenetwork of human relationship and societal growth as
progressing from asimple undifferentiated form. Societal development is from
homogeneousto highly differentiated or complex forms of industrial society.
ToDurkheim, society is a
moral entity that is external to the individual butcoerces his compliance
through belief system into a moral community ofadherents.
Other founding fathers of
sociology such as Karl Marx wereequally concerned with the nature of human
society and focused largelyon the role of conflict in human societies that are
highly stratified alongclass dimensions. The existence of classes in human
societies makesconflict over material resources inevitable. Marx contended that
all humansocieties have progressed from primitive communism, to slavery,
tofeudalism and to capitalism characterized by high exploitation. Thecontinued
exploitation of the masses will lead to the overthrow of thebourgeoisie,
resulting in socialism, a classless and egalitarian society.
Contrary to Marx, Weber
considers sociology as dealing with thestudy of organizations and the role of
ideas in the development of humansociety. He contended that modern contemporary
societies are beingorganized especially along bureaucratic dimensions as
demonstrated byhis theory of Bureaucracy. The role of ideas is also significant
intransforming the societies as was demonstrated in the protestant ethics
andthe spirit of capitalism. Weber has also drawn the attention of
sociologiststo the study of power and authority relationships in the society
which hecalled domination. He argued that legitimated power results in
authoritywhich leads to three types of domination. These are legal or
rational,traditional and charismatic domination. Rational domination is the
basisfor modern bureaucracies with definite hierarchical arrangements
andstructures as well as functions. The traditional domination is
throughcustoms and traditions, while that of charismatic is through gift of
graceor extra-ordinary qualities of the individual or person.Parsons also lend
his contributions to sociology (Parsons: 1964).
He was concerned with human
behavior in the society which he christenedsocial action. It is known as social
action analysis which sociologistsshould also concern them with.
Parsons therefore classify
humanbehavior based on motivations for human action. He describes humanbehavior
as been determined by the motives of the actor. Parsons furtherargued that for
society to survive and develop it requires functional prerequisites.These are
identified to include;
1. Pattern maintenance, tensionmanagement,
2.
Goal attainment,
3.
Adaptation to
environment and
4.
Integration of
the various components.
FACTORS THAT NECESSITATED THE EMERGENCE
OF SOCIOLOGY
Before the Comtian era, Greek and Roman philosophers
of old hadreflected intellectually on the societies of their time. Notably
among thesesocial philosophers were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean
JacquesRosseau who focused their attention on the question of political and
sociallife of the people. They examined the basis of the organization
andadministration of society, as well as the relationship between governmentand
citizens. During the enlightenment era, violent revolutions becamewidespread in
Europe.
Notable among these
revolutions were those ofGermany, Britain, Italy and France. German unification
brought wars inthe country that revolutionaries the nation. The English
revolution broughtabout by conflict between king James 1 and parliament in the
17th Century brought many changes in Great Britain. Before the
revolution, itwas the church that crowned the kings and gave them the
supremepolitical power over the kingdoms. These positions, the
revolutionchallenged vigorously and sought to change. There was also the
Frenchrevolution in 1789 which saw the violent overthrow of King Louis xviiiand
the subsequent strengthening of parliament. The major demands ofthe French
revolutionaries were liberty, equality and fraternity.
These
developments notwithstanding, the major event that shapedthe emergence and
development of sociology was the industrial revolutionin Britain. The
industrial revolution brought about widespread changeswhich made people to ask
fundamental questions about life and societygenerally. Among the changes that
occur were the disruption thataccompanied the industrialization process;
societies becoming morechaotic and the pollution to environment emanating from
industrial byproducts.Peasant migration from rural to urban towns for
factoryemployment was witnessed. There was also the rise of cities with
itsanonymity. Also the collapse of religion as a source of moral authority,the
demise of the old view of social order as ordained by God and the riseof explanations
based on science change events. These changes occurringin traditional European
societies necessitated the impetus that encouragedthe emergence of sociology as
a scientific discipline.
The emergence of sociology
was further aided by the currency andpopularity of the evolutionist theory of
Charles Darwin (1859) whichtraced the history of all species of plants and
animals from their earliestorigins. The influence of Darwinic organic or
biological evolution theoryled such social philosophers as Herbert Spencer in
England who sought tounderstand the developments of human society to apply the
theory oforganic evolution to human society.
Other pioneers in the
development ofsociology included Lester Ward, an American who published his
dynamicsociology in 1883. In this work Lester Ward advocated social
progressthrough social action guided by sociologist.
Two other factors
facilitated the development of sociology as a discipline.
The first been its adoption
of the scientific method ofinvestigation in the study of social behavior;
Sociology emerges as ascientific discipline using all the principles and
methods of investigationas found in the other pure sciences of chemistry,
physics, Biology etc.Auguste Comte was very zealous about developing science
for the societyand was instrumental in the development of rules of sociological
method.
The other factor for the
development of sociology was the exposure ofEuropeans to the radically
different societies of Africa, Asia and theAmericans whose exposure revealed
that different societies were atdifferent levels of development. This
difference they believe called foranalysis and explanation. Sociology attained
the status of an independentacademic discipline in 1892 with the establishment
of the Department ofSociology at the University of Chicago, United States of
America.
InAfrica, the first
Department of Sociology was established at theUniversity of Ghana in 1951. In
1895, the American Journal of Sociologywas established to publish and document
research and intellectual worksof sociologists. By 1905, the American
sociological society, a professionalbody of practitioners in the field of
sociology came into existence.
Methodology of Sociological
Study
The methodology of sociology as conceived by the
foundinggathers of the discipline, which has been summarized by John Rex
refersto classification and searching for laws, and establishment of
causalrelations and sequences.Sociology should classify social facts in terms
of observablecharacteristics of human behaviours, and institutions or
organizations.
This is normally based on
empirical investigations. This method is similarto the biological sciences
which deal largely with the classification ofliving things into animals and
plants. Even amongst animals furtherclassifications are made. The human body in
particular is classified intovarious systems; the digestive, excretory,
skeletal, and reproductive etc.
In a similar vein, the
sociologists classify human society into varioussystem e.g the political,
economic, cultural, and religious, amongst others.In searching for laws,
sociologists achieve it in two ways. Firstly, itis by the process of induction
and secondary, it is by the process ofdeduction. Induction is the process of
moving from a particularphenomenon to generalizations of the incidence of such
phenomena, inother words, by observing characteristics of a group of people
inunderstanding the behavior manifestations of the larger segments, orcorporate
groups in society. Deduction is by moving from the generalcharacteristics to
the particular phenomenon being observed, leading tothe identification of
similar characteristics or differences involved with thephenomenon under study.
The manifest characteristics can thus be utilizedto understand the unobservable
of any given phenomenon.
Sociologists establish
causal relations and sequences through causeand effects relationships. In
understanding the relationships amongvariables, in terms of independent and
dependent variable, the sociologistsapply the causality model. In any given
event or social occurrences, thereis always cause and effects. The causes may
not be the direct outcomes interms of effects, nevertheless, that relationship
can be or is beingestablished in terms of causes and consequences of social
behaviors orevents or even social action.
In any case, sociology has
applied and will continue to apply itsmethodology in the understanding of
society and network of humanrelationships. The founding fathers were concerned
or pre-occupied withthese models of investigations as they relate to human
behaviours and thesocial system. The study of man and his society requires
these methodsand approach, yet it cannot be as exact as in the case of the
physical sciences.
Moreover, sociology is a
social science dealing with humanbeings who are complex and difficult to
experiment under controlledlaboratory situations to give solid results.
Nevertheless, its objectivity andmethodology give credence to the discipline as
the science of society.
DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY
OF RELIGION
Sociology of Religion is the study of the Society from
a religiousperspective. It is the systematic study of societal variables from a
religiousview. Sociology of religion therefore constitutes an integral part of
a moregeneral study of culture and knowledge. Culture is a total way of life of
apeople learned and passed from generation to generation. Religion is acultural
element and as found in all societies is powerful and pervasive.
Religion is found to be at
the centre of political, economic, social,educational, technological and
scientific life of a people. Inbuilt inreligion are theological and doctrinal
teachings as well as values, laws,ethics, creeds and beliefs that shape the
life of adherents in a society.
Sociology of religion therefore
is interested in understanding the extent ofinvolvement, participation and
contribution religion has made inpatterning and providing direction in the
society. It is interested instudying the extent to which religion has brought
about change anddevelopment in the society. Sociology of Religion also examines
thehistorical development of religion, its origin and the various
formsreligious beliefs have taken over time.
Also, sociology of religion seeks tounderstand the
impact of religion on the individual as well as institutionsof the society. It
tries to understand the impact of religion on families,marriages, politics,
technology and development in a society. Indeed, thesociologist of religion
studies the entire society paying particular attentionto human interactions,
relationships, beliefs, norms and values among thevarious religious groups in
the society. It studies changes that have takenplace among the various
religious denominations found today and seek tounderstand the dynamics and
dialectics of such changes including thedirection such changes take.
Sociologists of religion
study socialaggregates, groups and organizations as well as institutions, law
and crimeas they relate to religion. The discipline study conflict, deviance
and triesto undertake research that will enhance peace, order and stability in
thesociety.
THE CONCEPT OF RELIGION
Religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices
relative tosacred things; things set apart and forbidden which unite into a
singlemoral community called a church, all those who adhere to them(Durkheim
1917). Religion is a cultural institution and is an instrument,for the
satisfaction of needs. It is an institution consisting of culturallypatterned
interaction with culturally postulated superhuman beings.
Religion comprises those aspects of our behavioral
complexes that are organized around beliefs, in spiritual or super natural
beings. Twoconcepts that are important in the definition of religion are
thesupernatural and the sacred.
The concept of the super natural
is basic andcrucial in the definition of religion. The supernatural beings are
of three main internal differentiate categories, God, spirits and ghosts
(Otite:1979). The great and supreme God is believed to have created the
universeand control all that is in it. God, who is considered all powerful,
rules theworld from above and is accessible to believers. The highest God
isfound in many cultures of Africa.
Among the Tiv of Benue, He
is calledAondo; the creator, who is omnipotent and has absolute control and
finalauthority over the universe.
Among the Nupe, the concept
of God is the most basic and centralconcept in religious life. The Nupe call
God “Soko” The one who dwellsin the sky. God is generally believed to rule from
the sky where heresides. He is approached through intermediaries. Mbiti (1969)
adds thatthe human intermediaries are of two kinds; human and spiritual beings.
The human intermediaries
consist of priests, diviners, ritual elders wholead prayers and making of
sacrifices to God. Spiritual beings comprisedof ancestral spirits, spirits of
national heroes and even gods such as thoseof the sky, thunder, rivers, etc.
Among African religion, spirit are varied.
They are animated in rivers, road junctions, trees,
houses and evenmountains, such spirits are believed to be closer to man as
guardianspirits.
The third category of
supernatural beings is ghosts who aresometimes considered to be spirits of dead
relatives. Ancestral spirits orghosts are said to be souls freed from dead
bodies that retain an active linkwith their living kinsmen. Based on their
close relationship with the livingand their previous existence in the society,
they are considered differentfrom spirits. They are believed to share the
emotions of the living.
Sociologists have traced
the origin of religion to ancestor worship(Spencer: 1896).The living and their
departed kinsmen are linked throughemotions and religious practices.
THE CONCEPT OF SOCIETY
The world society emerged in the 16th century, derived
from theFrench sociétéwhich stemmed from the Latin societas, a
“friendlyassociation with others,”fromsociusmeaning “companion,
associate,and comrade or business partner.” The Latin word is probably related
to theverb sequi, “to follow,” and originally may have meant “follower.”
In thesocial sciences, a society has been used to mean a group of people
thatform a semi-closed social system in which most interactions are withother
individuals belonging to the group. Society is a group of people whoshare a
common culture, occupy a particular territorial area and feelthemselves to
constitute a unified and distinct entity. It is a network ofrelationships that
binds members together. This is because human beingslive in groups known as
communities whose members share common andpeculiar culture. A community is a
unit which has common boundaries.Communities require planning, organization,
administration and control.
In several ways there is
stratification in the society. Members of a societyare educated on how to
think, act, work, relate to their neigbours andmake decisions on their own.
Society has several elements. As identifiedby Dzurgba (2009), these elements
include; land, population,relationships, institutions and work. People need
land for production offood, water supply, housing, mineral resources,
construction etc. peopleare the users of land and other resources found on
land. Human beingsinteract with land to produce various useable commodities
required forhuman development. Land has influential implications for all
humanactivities. To be able to manifest its full potentialities man must
interactwith land in a manner as to enable land establish its importance and
beuseful to all.
Population is another
important element of society. A society doesnot exist without people living in
it. People provide labour which work onland to produce results.
Therefore, the issue of
knowledge and skillspossessed by members of a society becomes very vital in
considering thecharacteristics of a particular society. Again, the dimension of
relationshipbecomes very vital in any society.
In the course of
interaction, peoplecreate various forms of relationships in the society. Such
relationshipsexist in form of marriage, friendship, family and neighbours,
business andworking relationships.
Institutions such as education,
government, law,religion and health exist in the society so as to ensure proper
socialconduct for enhanced order and stability.
Politics is also an
importantelement of society. Political parties, house of assemblies, senate,
House ofRepresentatives and electoral bodies responsible for conduct of
electionsare sub-institutions of politics.
These institutions are
important in anysociety because they are related to power and the process of
poweracquisition in any society. Power is used for the control of resources
bothhuman and material. Political institutions carry out several
valuablefunctions such as information dissemination, education, mobilization
andgovernance.
Another important element
of society that we will discuss here ishistory. The history of a people
provides a store-house for their past andpresent events. It provides a window
to understanding the presentconditions of a people with a view to improving on
their presentpredicaments. History provides the necessary information about
thebackground of a people; their customs, values, institutions,
technology,progress and development of society.
Work also forms an
important element of society. Work engages alarge number of people. While many
people work as Agriculturist, manyothers work as civil servants, industrial
workers, health workers etc. Byengaging in various working activities, peoples
earn salaries throughwhich they provide food stuff and other needs for members
of theirfamilies.
TYPES OF SOCIETY
Sociology recognizes many types of society and defines
these types ofsociety in a very clear manner. Following are some of those types
ofsociety and their characteristics.
1. TRIBAL SOCIETY
A tribe is group of bands occupying a contiguous
territory orterritories having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous
similarities inculture, frequent contacts and a certain community of interests.
A tribemay also be defined
as a social group with territorial affiliation that areendogamous with no
specialization of functions ruled by tribal officershereditary or otherwise,
united in language or dialect recognizing socialdistance with other tribes.
A large section of tribal
population depends onagriculture for survival.
Characteristics of Tribal Society
The tribe inhabits and remains within definite and
commontopography. The members of a tribe possess a consciousness of
mutualunity. The members of a tribe speak a common language. The
membersgenerally marry into their own group but now due to increased
contactwith outsiders there are instance of tribes marrying outsider as well.
Thetribes believe in ties of blood relationship between its members. Theyhave
faith in their having descended from a common, real or mythical,ancestor and
hence believe in blood relationships with other members.
Tribes follow their own political
organization which maintains harmony.Religion is of great importance in the
tribe. The tribal political and socialorganization is based on religion because
they are granted religioussanctity and recognition.
2. AGRARIAN SOCIETY
The invention of plough marked the beginning of
agrarian societies6000 years back. According to Collins dictionary of Sociology
Agrariansociety refer to any form of society especially very traditional
societiesprimarily based on agricultural and craft production rather than industrialproduction.
Wallace and Wallace described agrarian societies asemploying animal drawn
ploughs to cultivate the land. The mode ofproduction of the agrarian society
that is cultivation distinguishes it fromthe hunter-gatherer society which produces
none of its food.
The theoriesof Redfield and
Tonnies are considered important. Robert Redfield talksabout folk-urban
continuum and little tradition and great tradition as hisparamount focus in
rural studies. Tonnies on the other hand discussconcepts of Gemeinschaft and
Gesselschaft.
3. INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
The Industrial mode of production began some 250 years
ago inBritain and from there it spread to the entire world. In the simplest
sensean industrial society is a social system whose mode of production focusesprimarily
on finished goods manufactured with the aid of machinery.
According to Wallace and
Wallace, in industrial societies the largestportion of the labour force is
involved in mechanized production of goodsand services. The term industrial
societies originated from Saint Simonwho chose it to reflect the emerging
central role of manufacturing industryin the 18th century Europe in contrast
with previous pre-industrial andagrarian society.
Characteristics of Industrial Society
Industrial society is associated with the emergence
ofindustrialization which transformed much of Europe and United States
byreplacing essentially agriculture based societies with industrial base on
theuse of machines and non-animal sources of energy to produce finishedgoods. Industrial
societies are in a continual state of rapid change due totechnological
innovations. The high level of productivity in industrialsocieties further
stimulates population growth where people start living incities and urban
areas.
New medical technologies
and improved living standards serve toextend life expectancy. The division of
labour becomes complex with theavailability of specialized jobs. The status are
achieved rather thanascribed. The family and kinship as social institutions are
relegated to thebackground.
There is breakup of joint
family system and a nuclear family unit becomes prominent. The influence of
religion diminishes as people hold many different and competing values and
beliefs. The State assumescentral power in the industrial societies.
Industrialism is associated withthe widening gap between two social classes of
‘haves’ and ‘have nots.’
The rich or the capitalist
class is seen as exploiting the class of the poorknown as working class However
in most of the industrial societies thereis steady reduction in social
inequalities. Industrial societies have givenrise to a number of secondary
groups such as corporations, politicalparties, business houses and government
bureaucracies, cultural andliterary associations. The primary groups tend to
lose their importance andsecondary groups come to the prominence.
4. POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
The concept of post-industrial society was first
formulated in 1962by D. Bell and subsequently elaborated in his seminar work
‘Coming ofpost industrial society’ (1974). It describes the economic and
socialchanges in the late twentieth century. To Bell, theoretical
knowledgeforms the axial principle of society and is the source of innovation
andpolicy formulation.
In economy this is
reflected in the decline of goodsproduction and manufacturing as the main form
of economic activity, tobe replaced by services. With regard to the class
structure, the new axialprinciple fosters the supremacy of professional and
technical occupationswhich constitute a new class, in all spheres of economic,
political andsocial. Decision making is influenced by new intellectual
technologies andthe new intellectual class.
Other writers have also
commented on thegrowing power of technocrats in economic and political life.
Galbraith(1967) believes that power in the United states economy and therefore
inAmerican society as a whole lies in the hands of a technical bureaucracyof
the techno-structure of large corporations.
Features of Post-Industrial Society
Post-Industrial societies are marked by:
a) A declining manufacturing sector, resulting in
de-industrialization.
b) A large service sector
c) An increase in the amount of information technology,
often leadingto an “information age”. Information, knowledge, and creativity
arethe new raw materials of such an economy.
The industry aspect of a post-industrial economy is
sent into lessdeveloped nations which manufacture what is needed at lower
cost.This occurrence is typical of nations that industrialized in the past
suchas the United States and most Western European countries.
The General Natural of Beliefs
Beliefs are strongly and deeply held ideas or views
about a thing.Beliefs provide guidance to social behavior whether this is
religious,scientific, or political behavior. In life, human beings are faced
with abewildering array of choices to take. We often have to cope with
pressuresand counter pressures to follow this or that alternative course of
action. Inthe absence of beliefs we will probably find ourselves
switchingundecidedly between alternative courses of action and perhaps end
upaccomplishing nothing.
Our beliefs provide us with
direction andguidance and the sense of purpose that we need to decide and
select aparticular course of action. Belief in what we are doing, why we are
doingit and how we are doing it, is necessary as a motivation factor within
theindividual.
The beliefs we hold also
influence our perception and interpretationof the things going on around us.
This means that our actions are based onbeliefs. Beliefs differ from person to
person, from group to group, andfrom society to society. Beliefs do not exist
in isolation but normallybelong to one or other of the complex belief system
together that formpart of a society’s culture. Beliefs hang and connect
together in acompound integrated way. Belief systems are learned simultaneously
aswe learn the other aspects of our culture in the process of socialization.
Beliefs can be verifiable
or non-verifiable. Religious beliefs arelargely non-verifiable (in terms of the
“scientific method”) whether nonreligiousor secular beliefs are largely
verifiable. Beliefs systems give riseto systems of values and ethics which are
evaluative systems that specifyhow people ought to behave or what social good
or evil they ought topursue or refrain from. When such value or ethical system
flow from areligious beliefs, they a referred to a religious morality, but when
theyderive from secular or non-religious sources they are called
secularmorality. These two typologies are however not mutuallyexclusive.
In a great number of cases
secular ethics and religious moralitysupport each other. Indeed much of secular
ethics are derived fromreligious ethics. This is explained by the fact that
both the religious andthe secular are parts of the same whole which we call the
social system.Being parts of the same whole one cannot be isolated from the
otherexcept in an analytic sense only.
THE NATURE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
Religion is a cultural phenomenon which reflects man’s
attempts tocome to terms with his environment particularly as it concerns
thoseaspects of it which he does not understand such as death, pain
andsuffering.
In their explanations of
the origin of religion (in the form oranimism” which means belief that the
forces of nature e.g volcanoes,thunder, lightening etc. have supernatural
power). Edward B. Tylor and F.Max Muller stated that religion originated to
satisfy man’s intellectualnature, to meet his need to make sense of death,
dreams and visions.
All societies have one form of religion or the other.
In thesedifferent cultures, there exists a different system of religious
beliefs. Whatis however common among the different belief systems is that in
eachcase such beliefs are centered on a fundamental belief in thesupernatural
being or something which is above and beyond the naturalworld.
The human person is limited
in his thought processes such that hecan conceptualize phenomena only in terms
which he is familiar with i.e.in terms of the conditions operative in the
natural world of which hepersonally is a part. Consequently, gods and spirits
in the unseensupernatural world are perceived as good or evil, proud and
jealous, theymarry and beget children, can be offended and appeased when
offended,can revenge either in the present life or in the afterlife. These
beliefs aboutthe supernatural beings and the supernatural world are couched in
theform of religious creeds and myths in order to make them meaningful.
They present pictures of
heaven, hell, hades; the Elysian Fields etc. andcharacterize them as places
inhabited by God, Satan or gods and spirits.Religious beliefs formulated as
creeds and myths also explain thelink or relationship between the natural world
and the supernatural world.Such relationships often hinge upon a belief in the
ability of God or godsto assume human likeness or form and come into human
communities toassociate directly with mortal men. The supernatural being or
beings arealso believed to maintain contact with the natural world through an
abilityto beget children through human mothers and in such manner establish
anindirect relationship with the human world.
In every society, there are
certain objects (e.g. tree, stone, animal)which are associated with religious
beliefs and are regarded as sacred.Such objects are usually treated with
reverence. What is sacred in onesociety may not be sacred in another society,
but what is common amongsocieties is that each shares its peculiarities and
people treat religion withsome degree of seriousness.
THE
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF RELIGION
Religion all over the world has been found to comprise
of fourstructural elements. The elements as identified by Eddiefloyd
(2003)include;
1. Belief,
2. Ritual,
3. Emotions and
4. Organization.
Beliefs are stronglyheld conviction by the people who
are adherents to a religion that theirobject of worship is capable of solving
their problems. Religions of theworld are based on belief and the recognition
and creation of a sacredsupernatural being. The sacred supernatural being is
therefore veneratedand worship by followers. Indeed, without belief, there
would be noreligion.
Ritual as an element of
Religion refers to religious acts, ceremonialpractices and customs that are
geared towards the worship of the sacred.Religious rituals are a way of
venerating and honouring the sacred.
A ritual reaffirms the
total commitment of adherents and reinforces their belief in the sacredness of
the object being worshiped. They constitute practicalavenues where members
demonstrate their strong religious belief.
Normally, religious rituals
require the observance of certain special typesof behaviour such as prayers,
offering of sacrifices, observance of feast,meditations and the wearing of
particular clothes (Eddiefloyd: 2003).
Ritual observance is
identified with groups and sects that practiceparticular religious doctrines.
Among the Roman Catholic Churches in theworld, several rituals exist inform of
sacraments which members areobliged to partake, for example, the ritual of
baptism, the consecration ofthe holy Eucharist, the genuflection in the church
are seeing as rituals thatmust be imbibed by all practicing Catholics.
A very important function
ofritual is that it brings faithful together for mutual stimulation
andmotivation and for reaffirming their belief in the power of the sacredobject
of worship. Rituals also provide an avenue for expression ofemotional unity and
open declaration that members have absolutecommitment to the supernatural being
which is being worshipped.
The third element of
religion is emotions – Thisis a reference to thespirit of reverence, humility,
ecstasy, excitement and even terror that isevoked in the believer as he
presents himself in the presence of the sacred.
The notion that one is
present in the midst of the sacred evokes behaviorthat is considered appropriate
for the occasion. When faithful engage inreligious rituals and ceremonies,
there is a tendency for them to becomeengrossed by the presence of the sacred.
At such a period, individuals areemotionally attached to each other and may be
persuaded to do whatevertheir leaders would ask them to do. This is because
they are at this pointovershadowed by the presence of the supernatural. You
will find that mostreligious conflicts in Nigeria involving Christians and
Muslims oftencommence immediately after religious meetings. They are made to
beoverwhelmed by the presence of the sacred as they are psyched toconsider
their fellow brothers who do not belong to their faith asunbelievers who
deserve no fairer treatment but to be eliminated from thesurface of the earth.
To Christians, God is
emotional as he does not wanthis own to suffer. Emotion, therefore becomes an
important element ofReligion
The fourth element of religion is organization.
All Religions
arecharacterized by some form of organization. There are1. trained
officials;priests, cardinals, Bishops, pastors, church assistants, catechists,
churchleaders etc who occupy the church hierarchy with full powers andauthority
vested in them.
There are also ordinances,
rules and laws thatgovern the day to day conduct of members. Indeed, depending
on the typeof society one comes from, religion exhibit different degrees
oforganization.
In developed societies of
the west, religion is organizedalong Bureaucratic lines with a list of
officials and hierarchy. There arerules that govern relationship among members.
In developing societieshowever, religion is not differentiated in terms of
organization.
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
The theory of structural functionalism has its roots
from the worksof the founding fathers of sociology such as Auguste Comte,
HerbertSpencer, Emile Durkheim, and Talcott Parsons.
Functionalism takessociety
as its unit of analysis. The theory likens society to a livingorganism that has
different but interrelated systems which functions tomaintain the whole.
According to Herbert
Spencer societies like livingorganism exhibit varying degrees of structural differentiation
orcomplexity which can be understood in terms of the number of units orelements
in the system. There exists greater interdependence of parts of thesame system
when it is internally differentiated than when it consists ofidentical
elements. According to Spencer, greater differentiation ofinternal structures
leads to greater integration of the whole system.
Consequently, due to these
differentials, the organism or system witnessfunctional harmony of the
structures and it is able to survive and endureovertime, by reducing the
internal disharmony. Functionalism assumesthat an entire way of life may lose
its purpose or function through theprocess of change. According to Comte human
understanding,development and societal changes have been through three major
stages.
This has been the basis for
his law of three stages. These are:
1. The theological or fictitive stage,
2. The metaphysical and
3. The positive orscientific.
The theological was the
stage when social events wereexplained by means of superstition and religious
beliefs. Events and socialhappenings were explained in terms of the sacred,
deities, divinities, andGod.
The Metaphysical stage
marked the reasoning and logicaldeductions of arguments and discussions
prevailed.
The development topositive
stage marked the period or era of scientific endeavors orscientific
discoveries. Technological development and industrializationbegan. It was at
this stage that Comte evolved his social physics which helater changed to
Sociology placing it at the pinnacle of all the sciences.
Sociology for Comte was to
serve as a tool for human fufilment andexpression of worth so that man could
reshape the workings of the societyby adopting and applying those scientific
tools to thoughts and humanaction and reconstruct society. Comte thought it
necessary to giveSociology its pride of place among the sciences and the
understanding ofhuman society through social statics and dynamics. Social
staticsComte(1839) further argued should aim at discovering the laws that
wouldexplain how whole societies have changed overtime. The theoryassumes that
society has sub systems and institutions such as the family,marriage, economy,
politics, as well as religious institutions. The survivalof these institutions
depends on their ability to perform on the average netbeneficial functions to
the society.
The theory also assumes
that stabilityin the society is a function of value consensus. That people
share commonvalues and that account for the continued stability and order in
the society.
The theory further assumes
that human society has certain basic needscalled functional pre-requisites.
These are the need for adaptation, goalmaintenance, integration and pattern
maintenance. These needs are met bythe economic, political, legal, family,
religious and educational systemsrespectively. In order to ensure the survival
of the society, these functionalpre-requisite must be met.
Functionalists believe that
religion is importantin the society; i.e. that there is no society that is
without one form of religiouspractice or the other. Functionalists insist that
religion unites members ofthe society.
Durkheim regards religion
as purely a social phenomenon.Society he argues is a constraining moral force
as well as a creative onewith external constraints. It provides people with the
moral rules andnorms which they comply with and cultural resources to which
theydepend upon. By using the religious activities of the AustralianAborigines,
Durkheim demonstrated that religion serves the function ofintegrating the
society into a moral whole. The moral order set aside bythe members of society
becomes sacred and ritual activities are collectiveaction of group solidarity
and response.
Society, according to
Durkheim, exists over and above us known as moral entity or moral reality.
Religiousrituals increase group consciousness and loyalty. Religion reinforces
agiven social structure. It also restrains deviant behavior and
strengthenssocial harmony and solidarity.
Religion also promotes
obedience andloyalty in the society. Durkheim believed that Religion is the
worshippingof society. This led him to study Australian traditional religion
among theAboringes. He studied the ‘totem’ and found that religion provided the
thoughts, perceptions, attitude and actions of the people. Respect forsacred
symbols is also reflected in social obligations and duties ofadherents.
MARXIST
THEORY OF RELIGION
Marxist theory of Religion has its roots from the
works of KarlMarx and takes the orientation of dialectical materialism.
Marx derivedhis concept of
materialism from the word matter. He argued that, ideas derive their origin
from matter which refers to material conditions ofhuman existence. It is these
material forces that determine thoughts, andideas of men.
He thus contended that ‘it
is not the consciousness of menthat determines their social existence but on
the contrary their socialexistence determines their consciousnesses.
Moreover, ideas do not
exist ina vacuum;they must be related to a historical context, so that they
canhave sufficient bearing on social reality. The nature of social reality
alsochanges over time; hence, his conclusion that human progress or socialdevelopment
must go through five major stages namely,
1. Primitive
2. Communalism,
3. Slavery,
4. Feudalism and the final stage
5. Communism.
Hegelhad earlier conceived
of materialism as the movement of reality itself,reaching its completeness
through the process of logical development. Hebelieves that reality evolve from
one stage to the other by the process ofdialectics. It is this very idea that
Max developed and arrived at histheory of dialectical materialism. Marx argued
that reality evolvedthrough contradictions i.e. from thesis to Anti- thesis,
then synthesis.
Thesis is referring to
affirmation, Anti-thesis i.e. negation andcontradiction then reconciliation i.e.
synthesis, bringing about the newsocial order. Dialectical materialism
therefore, refers to the contradictionsor conflicts and resolutions that
characterize the material forces resultingto changes from one historical epoch
to the other.
The peculiar feature of
Marxists analysis of conflicts in societybased on dialectics derives from the
fact that he tempered philosophy withsome degree of reality. Hegel, an
idealist, believed that the external worldi.e. reality is a mere reflection or
embodiments of matter. This point ofview is known as materialism, which has
been the basis for Marx’sdialectical materialism.
According to him therefore,
ideas are derivedfrom matter. Ideas must be related in a historical context and
to thematerial world. It is in fact the material world that determines
thoughtsand ideas of men and women. The material world forces do not also
existin an unchanging and timeless fashion. They change throughcontradictions
over historical period of time. This is primarily becausematerial world today
is different from that of the past centuries. It is thismaterial world that is
referred to as historical materialism. This isespecially so when the ideas are
backed with social action, which cansignificantly shape the society or nature
of social reality.
Thus for Marx historical
materialism as already indicated has beenthrough five major stages namely
slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialismand finally communism. Each historical
epoch has specifically designatedmode of production forming the basis of
relationships in the supernaturalarrangements of the society. It is historical
materialism that is theextension of the principles of dialectical materialism
or theory ofdialectics as already explained.
The mode of production is
not static, but dynamic and it changeswith historical development of society.
When the existing structureaccommodates further development of productive
forces the old system ofproduction is overthrown and a new mode arises,
delineating newrelations.
According to Marx
therefore, critical human differences aregenerated by socio-economic division
of labour and relationship to themode of production.
The character of the mode
of production and social relations aredetermined by the level of development of
the society and by the characterof productive forces. Productive forces and
production relations togetherconstitute the mode of production. The various
modes that exist overhistorical period of time succeed each other. For example,
slavery modewas succeeded by feudal mode, then capitalist mode etc.
Alsocontradictions often
arise between the productive forces and the relationsof production. This is
because, the techniques, skills and workingexperience advance more constantly,
whereas, the production relationschange rather slowly, and behind the
production forces.
Due to this unequal changes
in the productive forces and theproduction relations, discrepancy arises and
conflicts develop in theproduction relations since the obsolete production
relations hinder furtherdevelopment of productive forces.
Conflict therefore, leads
to thedestruction of obsolete production relations and to the replacement of
newones corresponding to the new character of the productive forces that
havegrown up. A new mode of production begins a new circle of development,which
passes through the same process. Each stage corresponds to definitemode of
production, which also conditions the social, political andintellectual life of
the society in general, as already indicated.
Consequently, Marxism is often criticized for deriving
all otheraspects of society from the economic activities of man in the
society.Marx sees the interplay between the economic bases of society,
determinedby the mode of production, with the supernatural.
However, more than
hiscontemporaries, Marx is credited with concrete attempt to formulate
moreuniversal laws that govern the society.
It has thus contributed largely to the study of
general laws ofsociety and detailed, empirical materials for sociologists and
other socialsciences. It has also demonstrated the linkages between historical
andscience, and the nature of human society based on materialism, created
byeconomic forces at the base of society, determining every relationships.
However, Marx has been
accused of being a false prophet.According to Marx (1930), man is an exclusive
being that is born anddeveloped in the society. He is socialized based on the
complex series ofinteractions and relationships which help pattern his
perception of eventsand shape his consciousness. Marx considers the mode of
productionstemming from capitalism as the basis for exploitation. The mode
ofproduction is made up of factors of production and the social relations
ofproduction.
Relations of production
refer to definite relationships enteredinto in the course of production of
material goods and services or materialconditions of life. According to Marx,
it is the mode of production thatdetermines the nature of relationships in
society in fact, in the superstructural arrangements of the society. Marx
adopted the principle ofhistorical dialectical materialism in seeking an
understanding to thesociety. Karl Marx directed his intellectual powers against
capitalism.
Capitalism is a system of
production and trade based on property andwealth being owned privately. A
society where capitalism exists is a classsociety since capitalism is based on
exploitation. Consequently, KarlMarx identified the existence of two major
classes in the historicaldevelopment of society; the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. Thebourgeoisie owns the means of production and as such employs
theproletariat for a wage. The proletariat has no other asset but his
labourpower which he sells for a wage. Marx argued that the bourgeoisie
extortsthe proletariat of the proceeds of his labour.
The labour surplus
generatedfrom the productive interactions between the two classes is
oftenexpropriated by the bourgeoisie class. This creates a situation of
mutualantagonism between the two classes. The resultant fallout from
thesituation painted above is the development of a class consciousness by
theproletariat class who would mobilize themselves and overthrow thebourgeoisie
class and the reinstatement of a new social order known associalism.
Using the concept of base and superstructure, Marx
argued that theeconomic base of any society determine its superstructure
(thegovernment and its institutions). He explains that since the
bourgeoisieowns the economic base, they manipulate the superstructure to suit
theirvarious purposes.
Marx denounced religion as
an illusion and advocatedfor the elimination of religion from society. He looks
at religion as opium of the people. Religion hinders the proper growth of
creativepowers which are capable of scientific exploration, discovery,
invention,administration and organization of society.
Religion encourages
themasses to resign from Reproductive activities and accept poverty as
acondition for religious faith.
Marx explained that
religion supportscapitalism in making the poor more desperate and frustrated.
Religionendorsed the
capitalist system of production and distribution of goods andservices. It
supports the conditions whereby skilled and unskilled workersare exploited in
kind, time, wages and the provision of social servicessuch as electricity,
water supply and medical services. In spite of all theseinhuman treatment
melted out to the people, religion demands thatadherents submit themselves to
exploitative authorities.
Marx explainedthat religion
was capable of making the problems of life more bearablethan they actually are.
Marx accused religion of making its adherentsdocile, stupid and unable to claim
their rights to a decent life involving thesecurity life and property.
CRITICISMS
Criticism of Marxism or Marxian analysis arises from
the fact thathe predicted a revolution that failed to occur in capitalist
Europe. It rathertook place in China and Russia, which had never attained the
capitaliststage in their historical development before the revolution.
Also themiddle class which
Marx foresaw and predicted will disappear hasemerged as the dominant class in
most capitalist societies today.
Ralf Dahrendorf criticized
Marx of thinking that class conflicts willalways mechanically lead to a
revolution. There can be institutionalizationof conflicts. Accordingly, he
argued that authority structure rather thanclass structure is very important in
modern societies in preventingconflicts from escalating into a revolution.
Moreover, according to
Mayo,Marxist theory of class and class struggle does not explain change
fromFeudalism to capitalism by revolution. And that if class struggle
dominantthe feudal period it was certainly not between the landlords and serfs.
Marxhas also been
criticized for inadequate conceptualization of the mode ofproduction in his
analysis of class when he referred to it as resources,techniques, and labour.
He ignored the entrepreneurial functions and seemsto include capital among
materials. Dahrendorf (1959) also observed thatMarxian analysis of class and
class struggles and historical evolution ofsociety was accurate for the 19th
Century Europe, but now obsolete for thepost capitalist epoch.
Furthermore, the theory of
dialectics recognizesconflicts as well as consensus as the basis for social
change i.e. Anti- thesisconstituting conflict, and synthesis reconciliation
being the consensus.
Marxian analysis of
society, based on conflicts amongst groups,classes etc. is significant for
bringing to our understanding the nature ofinequality and conflicts in society
as well as classes and class struggles.
Furthermore, his work
illuminated the development of society from onestage to the other i.e.
primitive communism, to slavery, feudalism tocapitalism and eventually
socialism and communism. Dahrendorf praisesMarx for systematically exploring
this phenomenon of social conflicts bystating that as obvious as it may seem
that social conflicts often result inthe modifications of acceptable patterns
of behaviours. It has neither beenexplored as systematically by anybody as by
Marx.
Indeed, this
eloquenttestimony by Dahrendorf leaves us without any as regards the
significanceof Marxian as an approach in sociological analysis and
understanding thenature of human society.
SYMBOLIC
INTERACTIONIST THEORY
The theory of symbolic interactionism is traced to the
works ofCharles Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead. Herbert Mead’s
centralconcern was the understanding of the relationship between human
mindedactivities and nature. He posed the question that, can those techniques
ofnatural sciences be usefully applied to the study of human mind, to
humansocial activities. Mead tried to demonstrate that the methods of the
naturalsciences can be usefully applied in the study of human
mindedinteractions and activities. According to him, human mind can be
studiedscientifically like any phenomena, using all the scientific methods.
Themethods of natural
sciences include experimentation causal relationships,observations and
interpretations. It also involves applying the proceduresand processes used in
physics, chemistry, biology, etc as well as therelationships amongst variable.
Herbert Blumer provided a
more elaborateanalysis on symbolic interactionism through his criticisms of
variableanalysis. Variable analysis deals with the explanations of
relationshipsamongst variables especially between two or more variables i.e.
frustrationcauses aggression. Here we are having two variables i.e.frustration
andaggression. We can demonstrate scientifically the independent anddependent
variables. But Blumer argues that the transfer of this procedurewithout
modification in the study of human mind (the principle ofsymbolic interaction)
is inacceptable.
Blumer suggests that “in
order to act, the individual has to identifywhat he wants, establish an
objective, or goal, map out a prospective lineof behavior, note and interpret
the actions of others, size up his situation,check himself at this point or
that point, and frequently, spur himself on inthe face of dragging dispositions
or discouraging setting.
In any case, symbolic
interactionism according to Herbert Meadhas the following:
a)
That, human
beings are minded individuals who are perpetuallyinvolved in active interactions
with one another. These interactionscan change behavior etc. It is therefore,
based on the followingconcepts
i.
Language:Language can take the form of utterances i.e.
gestures,gesticulations, and movement, in the process of communicationwith
others, and perhaps self or the individual. Gestures arisingfrom interaction
process can communicate silent gestural language.It can also involve vocal
utterances. The vocal language may besacred or profane, formal or informal,
vulgar or polite.
ii.
Interactional
setting or arena: This includes all
forms of interaction that take place within anarena or captive audience.
Settings are immoveable and refer tophysical settings but an arena can be
created out of social situationsor circumstance. It is the individuals that
produce arena, be itphysical or social.
iii.
Self can be
regarded as the thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and actions,as well as utterances
any person has within himself as a distinctobject. It is a social process that
arises from covert and silent conversations and behavioral dispositions,
observed through one’scommunicative acts and conversation involving gestures.
iv.
Joint-Act or
activity: This refers to the situation whereby communicationtakes place between
two or more persons. Joint-Act may take manyforms depending upon people
involved in the interaction process.
v.
Interaction
occasion which includes all behaviours that demonstratethose involved in the
interaction process, their symbolic presenceto each other or those interactions
which are in one another’sphysical if not symbolic presence.
vi.
Encounter:It takes place during interaction occasions. Occasions
are the stagefor encounters which may be defined as an act between two ormore
person whereby those activity involved in the interactionsymbols visual,
auditory, and tactile contact. Encounter lasts aslong as two or more persons
can sustain mutual understanding andrelationship. Mead goes on the demonstrate
that human beingsmake gestures, to each other which are expected to elicit
particularresponses, and this is through taking the role of the other in
theprocess of interaction. According to him“The child, for example, gradually
acquires the capacity to respondin a kind of imaginative way to his own
projected conduct. Within himselfhe rehearses precisely what he is going to do,
and inwardly he responds tohimself. Should the response that he obtains prove
to be unsatisfactory, hewill then try again until an act is pictured in his
mind which elicits withinhimself, the reflection of the satisfactory response.
An individual therefore
directs behavior towards himself or herself,converses with himself or herself
and goes ahead to pass judgment uponhim or herself. The self concept, which is
non-existence at birth, is nowgained through social experience i.e. by taking
on the role of the others.
Furthermore, Mead contended
that:“Thinking is thus preparatory to social action. It is interesting tonote
that Mead considers that superman “x” factor in intelligence is simplythis
ability of the individual to take the attitudes of the other, or theattitudes
of others generally, thus realizing the significance of the gesturesand symbols
in terms of which thinking proceeds and so being enabled tocarry on with
himself the internal conversation by means of gestures andsymbols.
The community or organized
social group that provides theindividual unity of self is classified by Herbert
Mead as, first thegeneralized social other, which reflects the attitudes of the
wholecommunity.
As a member of the
community or organization, or thesociety, the individual anticipates the
behavior of others and performs avariety of roles simultaneously. These roles,
according to Mead, specifyrules and techniques which the individual identifies
or conforms with, andthus, observes the generalized pattern of behavior, i.e.
the role of thegeneralized others. In a highly stable society, the generalized
image isfairly settled and varieties of interpretations do not exist because
the rolesare appreciated and well understood.
Whereas, in heterogeneous,
fastchanging and disorganized societies; there exist series of
generalizedothers, due to existence of many competing and difficult roles.
However,it is due to the
generalized other that the individual identifies with thesociety’s aspirations,
problems and goals and learns to solve them.
Cooley (1902) argued that
symbols are important in the process ofinteraction which determines and affects
the socialization of theindividual. Cooley explains that the self develop out
of a complex seriesof interaction process. Employing the concept of looking
glass self,Cooley explains that we learn who we are by interacting with others.
Ourview of ourselves comes not only from direct contemplation of ourpersonal
qualities but also from our impression of how others perceive us.
He used the phrase “looking
glass self” to emphasize that the self is theproduct of our social interactions
with other people.Mead (1934) explains that the self developed out of a
complexseries of interaction. One important aspect in the development of the
selfis the process of role taking. Role taking is the process of
mentallyassuming the perspective of another, thereby enabling one to
respondfrom imagined view point. Mead used the term “generalized others
“torefer to those attitudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as awhole;
He also use the term ‘significant others’ to refer to those personswho are
important in the development of the self of the individual.
Symbolic interactionists
insist that religion consist of a body ofsymbols used by the society to obtain meaning
to the unexplained thingsof life. Symbols used in religion include objects such
as stones, rivers,mountains and even animals such as oxen, Tigers etc.
These animals andobjects
are considered sacred and venerated in worship by adherents. Godis considered
to be a spiritual being and unapproachable by human beingswho are considered
sinful.
Also rituals involved in
religious worship areperceived as outward symbols of an innermost righteous
life ofworshippers. The individual person has to mould his self in line with
thepercepts of God as indicated by his religious group
THE FAMILY AS
AN AGENCY OF RELIGION
The family is a domestic group in which parents and
children livetogether and in its elementary form consists of a couple with
their children(Mair, 1972). It is a kinship grouping which provides for the
rearing ofchildren and for certain other human needs (Horton and Hunt: 1976).
Although different
definitions emphasize different things, what is clearabout the family as a
sociological concept is that it involves sex, children,parenthood, kinship and
sometimes marriage and common residency. Thepresence of some of these elements
in any given concrete case maydepend on the type of family one is talking
about.
The family as anagency of
religion comes in handy inform of socialization duties placedon it by the
society.
The family as a basic unit
of the society is chargedwith the responsibility of child rearing and
upbringing. Every individualin the society comes from a family. The family is
expected to socialize itsmembers in such a manner as to place God first in all
their daily activitiesof life. Every family embodies a set of common values
(Values aboutlove, children, life, family routines and religion), and a network
of rolesand social statuses that determine relationship within the family.
TYPES OF FAMILY
a) Nuclear Family
The nuclear family consists of a man, his wife and
children.Another term for the nuclear family is elementary family. It has also
beenreferred to as the natural family. It is also found in other parts of the
worldwhere in many cases it co-exists with other types of family. The
nuclearfamily can be further classified into a number of types. These are
theconjugal family otherwise known as the family of procreation, the
natalfamily also called the family of orientation. The conjugal family is
thefamily in which one is a father/husband or mother/ wife. Natal family isthe
family where one was born.
b) Extended Family
An extended family consists of several nuclear
families i.e two ormore nuclear families. A man’s conjugal family is joined
through him tohis father’s conjugal family and through his father to his
grand-father’sconjugal family, in that progression (upward and downward) to
form theextended family. The extended family thus covers one’s nuclear
familyplus any other kin with whom one is related through blood.
The extended family is common
on the African continent where it exits along-side thenuclear family. In
England and other western societies the extendedfamily was said to have existed
prior to the industrial revolution whosepervasive influence eroded the
extended.
An opposite view however
contends that in these western societiesthe extended family structures still
persist even onto this day. They areseen to serve as a form of social insurance
against the accidents misfortunes at the industrial workplace. The second view
is probablybased on studies that measured the “currency of contacts” and
“familysentiments” among western urban dwellers and their near and
distantrelatives, rather than on findings that proved geographical and
commonco-habitation of blood kins. Many conflicting views of this kin often
stemfrom problems of level in concept operationalization.
c) Monogamous andPolygamous Families
These terms are used to describe families in terms of
the kind ofmarriage contract that gave rise to them.
A monogamous family is
afamily composed of a man and one wife and their children. It is equivalentto a
nuclear family and has been referred to as the simple legal family. Apolygamous
family on the other hand is a family composed of one manand more than one wife
and their children.
In a polygamous family
eachwife/mother and her children constitute what is called a
mother-centeredfamily known as matricentric or matrifocal family.
All the
matricentricfamilies within a polygamous family share in one father/husband.
In the typical African
setting, each matricentric family which in itsown right is a nuclear family is
sheltered in a different apartment andmaintains a separate kitchen from the
rest of the other matricentric units.
In the traditional African
setting the father/husband is fed in turn by thematricentric units. It is also
important to emphasise that each matricentricfamily relates as a unit or as
individuals with the other members of thepolygamous family.
The polygamous family has
been referred to byanother term: “complex legal family” which is linked by
their relationshipto a common father. One can also speak of a polygamous
family.
d) Ghost Family
A ghost family consists of the ghost (the patter), his
wife, theirchildren, and the kinsman who became their genitor by reason of
hiscustomary duty towards a dead relative (the ghost). A ghost family is thena
family that is set up through ghost-inheritance marriage.
FUNCTIONS OF
THE FAMILY
The family as a social
institution performs a number of significantfunctions for society and these
functions justify its existence. Thefunctions include:
1. The regulation of sexual behaviour,
2. The replacement ofdead members,
3. The socialization of new members,
4. Provision of economicsupport or care,
5. Assignment of social status or social placement,
6. Provision of emotional support and
7. The provision of physical protection.
1. THE SEXUAL REGULATION FUNCTION
The family is the major institution through which the
societyorganizes and regulates the satisfaction of sexual desires of its
members.
No society allows its
members to engage in random sexual behaviour.There are always rules which
specific who may sex and who may not,whom one may have sexual access to and
whom one may not mate withetc. Although many societies provide some alternative
sexual outlets or tolerate some degrees of sexual indulgence for whatever
social purpose(e.g. as a preparation for marriage or a means of determining
fertility), themarriage and family system remain the principal setting within
whichmost sexual intercourse must occur.
Hence most, if not all
societies, havenorms which prohibit sex outside marriage and the family.
2. THE REPRODUCTION FUNCTION
All societies need to replace its members as many grow
old and dieoff. Without such a replacement a society will soon disappear or
vanish.
The family provides it with
the means of reproducing its number andensuring generational replacement. In no
society can one most procreationencourage outside the family setting even in
the most promiscuous andpermissive of all societies. It is within the family up
that adequate rolepositions have been prepared for the caring of the children
that are born.
3. The Socialization Function
The family in all societies serves as primary agency
for childsocialization. Newly born children need to be taught the customary
waysof their society. In the helpless years of their infancy, they need to
becared for and provided for. Without being taught the rudiments of
theirsocieties they cannot grow up into functional adults.
All of this task eventhough
there are other socialization agencies which can play contributoryroles.The
reason is simple. Because the newly-born child belongs to theparents, the
latter take special care and interest in monitoring itdevelopment and progress.
Because parent have personal stake in thegrowing child they conscientiously
pass onto the child everything itrequires maturing into a full adult member of
society language, values,norms, beliefs, food, protection etc.
The family is thus the most
significantand influential agency of socialization.
4. PROVISION OF ECONOMIC SUPPORT
Human beings need food, shelter, and clothing in order
to survive.These basic needs of life are provided by the family.
Within the familyset-up
those who are unable to take care of themselves by reasons ofillness,
unemployment, youth or old age find ready assistance from othersiblings or
family members who are productive and active and who earnincome. Parents also
recognize a social duty to fend for their children orfamily members.
In small-scale societies
the family is the basic economicunit. This means that members work together as
a household team andshare commonly in the proceeds of their labour;which means
that thefamily plays a great economic role by ensuring economic sustenance
forits members or by making it possible for its members to obtain
materialsupport which cannot be readily obtained outside the family context.
5. THE STATUS PLACEMENT FUNCTION
A person’s family of birth determines his initial
status in society.When we are born, we enter into the statuses of our parents:
we belong tothe same religious and social class of our parents.
It is from our parent’sclassification
that we must start out in life and then possibly change itover the course of
time for better or for worse. Thus, not only materialgoods and wealth are
inherited from the family but also a variety ifascribed and achieved statuses.
In any society that is
stratified according to class, the status of achild’s family greatly determines
the opportunities and rewards availableto that child, and this head-start
substantially determines his entire lifechances including his adult status.
All things being equal, a
child attains ormaintains the class status of his parents at adult age. This is
because thefamily of orientation prepares the child for class position
identical to itsown.
As the child grown he
internalize from its family a set of culturalnorms, values, interests, beliefs
and life-habits which enable him tocontinue in or re-enact his family class
status.
Strangely enough, this
process of imbibing our family’s social classoutlook imposes on us a class
ceiling or blockade which makes it difficultor impossible for us to achieve
status levels above those of our parents.Quite clearly, our family background
is the most significant singledeterminant of our status in society.
6. EMOTIONAL SUPPORT
Every human being needs a warm, affectionate relationship
with aclose circle of intimate associates. Lack of love and intimate
responsesfrom others lead individuals to the brink of emotional instability
andpossible neuroses.
In the harsh industrial environment of today’s
modernsociety which is characterized by disappointments, dissatisfactions
andfailures, there is a great need for a safe-haven, a place of emotional
refugeinto which a victim can run for comfort. The family provides one
suchplace.
The family is a primary
group that is composed of blood relatives.In this primary setting emotional
needs can be fulfilled and very deeppersonal feelings can be expressed with no
reservations whatsoever. Thefamily provides us with the companionship and
intimate human responseswith we need to remain emotional stable and to lead
happy lives. This is avery important function.
7. THE PROTECTION FUNCTION.
In every society the family undertakes the task of
protecting itsmembers. It offers them physical protection in addition to
economic andemotional or psychological protection.
In many societies family
membersso much identify with one another such that anything that affects any
onemember of the family affects the entire family. An attack against amember is
taken as one against the whole family. There is a mutualresponsibility among
members to protect one another.
In primitive societies,
there was a practice known as grouprevenge. Revenge of an injury inflicted by
an external aggressor wasorganized at the level of the group. The individual was
not left along torevenge a wrong done to him personally. Revenge was recognized
as theresponsibility of the group in which a person belonged. This could be
afamily or clan etc.
Physical protection even in
modern society is a rolewhich most families will be quite ready to play in the
lives of theirmembers.
The family as the first
point of contact with the child in thesocialization process plays a vital role
in serving as an agency of religion.Because the newly born child belongs to the
parents, the latter takesspecial care and interest in monitoring his
development and progress.
Because parents have stake
in the growing child they conscientiously passonto the child everything he
requires to mature into a full adult member ofsociety.
Religious values form an
important component of what the familyteaches her young ones. In most families,
priority is placed on adherenceto a routine of activities including reading the
bible every morning andnight. Family members gather at night to say prayers
before going to bedand early morning before commencement of the day’s
activities. Thefamily there serves as an important agency of religion.
THE
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION AS AGENCY OF RELIGION
Educational institution comprises that segment of the
basic structure ofsociety which meets the educational needs of the people.
Theseeducational needs of
the society include transmission of social heritage,new ideas, skills and
values including religious values.
Educationtherefore involves
the transmission of knowledge, skill and values whichthe individual need to
master in order to control his physical and socialenvironment and adapt himself
to the demands of the society of which heis a member (Eddiefloyd: 2003).
Education has several
types. Theseinclude,
1. Formal,
2. Non-formal and
3. Informal education.
Formal Education isthat education which takes places
in the classroom. It is school basededucation and involves all experiences that
are provided by Professionalteachers and experts. Formal education is organized
body of knowledgethat is structured in curriculum. It is learning in which
individualsundertake consciously under formal schools with rules, regulations
andorganized curriculum and methods of teaching.
Informal education is that
type of education which takes place withor without its receiver being conscious
of its effects on him. Informaleducation takes places everyday and at all
times. There is no formalsetting for it but as individuals discuss, observe
events and imitate others,learning takes places. Informal education is not
planned and organized andas such has no consciously planned curriculum.
Non-formal education
comprises those highly specific educationalexperiences which are provided in
non-school environments. This type ofeducation is organized to some extent but
do not represent full developedcurriculum. Examples of non-formal education
include tradeapprenticeship schemes, Agricultural extension program, National
youthservice schemes etc.
Educational institution
serves as agencies of religion in a numberof ways. In the first instance, the
curriculum of schools involves teachingof religion as a subject. The pupils are
taught religious beliefs andpractices as a way of life which they come to grow
up and mature with.
Education also involves
imparting on of religious values into learners.Thus learners imbibe values of
honesty, humility, dedication and loyaltymolded on sound morality which ensures
the projection of society interestas paramount.
Education ensures the
integration of various diversified religious sects anddenomination into one
body of believers. Most modern societies containwith them diverse religious
groups whose cultures and religious practicesare not only discordant but may be
in actual conflict with one another. Insuch a situation education comes in
handy as a means of integrating thedifferent sub-cultural groups into a common
culture of shared beliefs andvalues.
THE CONCEPT
OF CULTURE
The concept of culture has several definitions. To
many, culturerepresents the totality of way of life of a people.
More clearly, culture
isdefined as the complex whole of man’s acquisitions of knowledge,morals,
beliefs, art, custom, technology etc which are shared andtransmitted from
generation to generation (Otite and Ogoinwo: 1979).
Culture is therefore
everything that is socially learned and shared bymembers of a society. The
concept of culture is used in reference to agroup or society. The architectural
designs and responses toenvironmental cues which we collectively refer to as
culture are not Godgiven but are deliberately fashioned out by members of a
society to guidelife and living in all aspects of society. This implies that
different societieshave different cultural patterns.
Culture develops out of the
desire by a group to overcome theirproblems as they try to control their
environment so as to improve theireconomic, religious, security and
technological needs.
As a group worktowards
providing its needs, it becomes necessary to devise rules andnorms of behavior,
create values and principles that will govern socialinteraction and
relationship. Culture is therefore a distinctive andtransmissible network of
symbols which characterize a designatedaggregate of people (Eddiefloyd: 2003).
Culture embraces such
things thatare man -made, artifacts (Chairs, Cars, planes etc), ideals, beliefs
andfeelings (e.g. about the existence of God). Culture thus covers all
aspectsof life religion inclusive.
In scientific usage,
culture is often defined in blanket terms as the total oflife of a people. More
specifically, culture is defined as the complexwhole of man’s acquisitions of
knowledge, morals, belief, art, custom,technology etc which are shared and
transmitted from generation togeneration. Many anthropologist and sociologist
accept this definition ofculture which was given by E.B.Tylor in his primitive
culture firstpublished in 1891. The definition stresses that culture is not a
personalitem. Culture is used with reference to a society or a group of
societies.
Culture does not die with
the death of an individual or a group of such people vanishes under such
mishaps as earthquakes. Even here there is thepossibility that the materials
and the technology of such a people may bedug up at some future date by
archeologist and the buried culture of thesociety reconstructed.
Culture has both material
and non-material aspects. Materialculture relates to overt or explicit aspect
of culture. It is a reference to thevisible or concrete acquisition of man in
society. Examples of materialculture include bridges, hoes, houses, cooking utensils,
handicrafts etc.on-material aspect of culture consist of knowledge, moral,
philosophy,language, attitudes, values, norms, religion etc of a people shared
andtransmitted in a society. Non-material aspects of culture are not visible
ortangible but are manifested through thinking and behavior of a people.
Both of these aspects of
culture – material and non-material go together asthe culture of a people. They
are however important in the analysis ofcultural patterns of a people, that is
their general mode of conduct thesystematic and integrated content of behaviour
which is characteristic ofthat society. Because of this, it is possible to
predict or anticipate thebehaviour of members of a given culture.
In Sociological studies we
do not consider any society and individual asuncultured. Every person who is a
member of a society has a culture.Ideally, no one culture is better than
another.
The concept of
culturalrelativity is an important one in sociological studies. By this
concept,every cultural trait or behaviour is judged in the context of the
particularculture and its value system. The concept implies that both the
diversitiesof cultures and their comparative appraisals. Whereas there are
universaltraits in culture, there are also traits which are found only in
certaincultures. Hence there are specific elements which characterize a
cultureand general elements which cut across cultures.
However, because cultureis
an abstraction, it is impossible to say even in scientific terms that
oneculture is richer than the other. The richness and comparability of
suchcultural elements as language, morality, systems of ideas, philosophies etc
are obviously impossible to measure.
Cultural accumulation is
the process by which new traits or elementsare added to a particular culture.
Hence there is cultural growth. Thisincreases in the number of items or traits
in a culture is possible throughinventions or discoveries by members of the
society or though diffusion.
These processes of cultural
accumulation and of cultural evolution arefraught with change. Culture is not
static. It has continuous growth and istherefore always changing through the
acquisition of more cultural traitsand borrowing. The introduction of a
cultural element may mean theintroduction of an initial conflict. But such conflict
usually disappears asthe cultural trait becomes accepted. However, it is not in
every case thatnew cultural traits are accepted.
A new cultural element can
be rejected bya society and also there can be continuities and discontinuities
in theculture of a people. There may be continuities in the central traits of
aculture whereas only the peripheral ones may be discontinued. Culturalchange,
sometimes referred to as cultural dynamics occurs when theculture of a people
is modified though time. A people’s culture can be isshown in their behaviour
and manifested in their artifacts and art forms.
Culture therefore cannot be
observed directly. What we can observe is thebehaviour of people and their
techniques and manner of constructingmaterial artifacts. Similarly, dancing is
not culture itself; it is one formthrough which culture manifest itself. Human
behaviour, speeches,dances, songs etc are important in a study of culture only
because of thelight they shed into the way people are trained and brought up to
bemembers of a society. What we refer to earlier as material and nonmaterial
aspects of culture including carvings, paintings, dress,philosophy, etc
represent the end product of culture of a people.
Every culture is distinct,
with its own history and dynamics. Because ofthis it can only be evaluated in
its own terms hence the term culturalrelativity. In its dynamic yet distinct
form, culture functions as amechanism of adaptation to a particular environment
are it social orphysical. It is because of this adaptation that a people and
their culturecan survive in a particular environment.
Changes in culture are thus
caused by several factors: ecologicalchanges and the need to survive,
inventions to exploit the environmentefficiently, culture contact leading to
the availability of alternatives,elements, innovations, process of cultural
transmission from generation togeneration and the dynamic process involved in
the interaction betweensociety and its culture.
RELIGION AND
CULTURE
IN SOCIETY
Religion constitute a major aspect of culture; the
non-materialculture. Every religious practice, value or norm is based on the
culturalbackground of a people. Again, every religious ceremony practiced
amongthe people of a community is traceable to earlier cultural practices.
Among the Roman Catholics,
many of their religious rituals andceremonies have a link to the Roman Culture.
The celebration of feastsand festivals such as Christmas has their roots in
Roman Culture. Religionis culturally determined and as such it expresses the
very nature of beliefprevalent in a people. In Africa, the advent of missionary
activities portraysWestern religion as superior to any other form of religion.
The politicizedbelief that one religion is superior to another made early ChristianMissionaries
to Africa come into contact with stiff opposition from thenatives. This
resulted in the destruction by fire and disappearance throughother means of
what was derogatorily labeled idols in several West andEast African societies.
The inability of the
missionaries to understand theculture of the people as was exemplified by their
religious practices andvalues often brought them into open conflict. For
example, the agrariannature of African communities requires that men marry a
number of wivesso as to own a large number of workers. Again ancestral link
between theliving and the dead requires that Africans indulge in ancestral
worshipthrough pouring of libations and offering of sacrifices using animals.
Virtually, the Christian
church forbade Africans from marrying manywives, ancestral worship and the use
of blood of animals in sacrifices andpouring of libations. Hence there is often
conflict between differentcultures and moral standards. Religion is measured in
terms of WesternChristian ethical standards and requirements. This phenomenon
manyscholars have argued facilitated the gradual erosion of and destruction
ofAfrican cultural values.
One of African’s reactions
to the perceived encroachment on theirculture was the formation of independent
indigenous churches andreligious movements (Otite and Ogwoinwo: 1979). Example
of such churches includes the cherubim and seraphim and the Christ
ApostolicChurch.
THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change refers to the significant alterations of
culture, socialstructure and social behavior over time. It is a reference to
themodifications that occur within social institutions, in social
attitudes,values, beliefs, and patterns of relationship.
When change occurs in asociety, patterns of cultural
behavior are altered; new institutions emergeto take care of the needs of the
emerging structures and social relationship.
Examples of social change include changes in language,
use of new formsof transportation, changing ideas about sex and equality, new
dance, dressand even marriage.
Social structures
everywhere undergo continuouschange. The myriad of observable differences in
social phenomena overtime call attention to the universal and continuous nature
of social change.
In sociology everything
changes, nothing is constant except change itself.Otite and Ogionwo (1978) have
used the example of the changingeconomic and social roles of women in Nigeria
within the past fourdecades to illustrate the concept of change. They explain
that thetraditional image of woman has been that of a wife and mother and
herduty was to serve the man. The working woman was associated withpromiscuity
and indecent behavior.
Nowadays, the traditional
role of theNigerian woman is changing. This change is due largely as a result
ofmodernization. Women are no longer restricted to the kitchen anddomestic
duties. Women are now becoming more involved in economic,political and cultural
events. With improved communication andtransportation system rural women are
getting more involved in trade andcommerce. Women are increasingly been
involved in education andpolitics. Also, women are increasingly been involved
in religiousactivities with some of them starting up their independent
ministries.
SOURCES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Sociologists have over the years identified several
factorsresponsible for social change in the society. The direction which
changetakes as a result of any causative factor depends on the peculiar social
andhistorical conditions that prevail in a particular society. Some of
thesources of social change include;
a) Invention: - This
is a reference to new use of existing knowledgeto produce something that was
not in existence. Two types of inventionsexist; material inventions and social
inventions. Material inventionsinvolve producing tangible products such as
cameras, automobiles andcomputers. Social inventions involve creating
democratic institutions,slavery, and corporations. Invention is not strictly an
individual matter buta social process which involves continuous series of
improvement andmodification towards improving the existing condition.
b) Discovery:-This
is another source of social change in society. Adiscovery is a new perception
of an aspect of reality that already exists.When a discovery is put to use then
it becomes a source of social change.Discoveries themselves are useless until
they are put to use and canproduce change. For example, the ancient Greeks were
reputed to havediscovered the principle of steam power and actually built a toy
steamengine in Alexandria about 100 AD. They did not put this principle to
anyserious use and as such could not generate any significant change until
theera of industrial revolution in Europe.
c) Increases in population: - Increases in population of n area maylead to decline
in informal relations, the growth of secondary grouprelations and the growth of
formal institutional structures. Populationincreases also mean increase
pressure and demand on available resources.Thus, there is increased demand on
available infrastructure such ashousing, roads, electricity and pipe borne
water. There may also beincreases in poverty, diseases and crime as a result of
populationincreases. These developments generate social change in the society.
d) Conflict: - This
has remained a major source of change over theyears. Conflicts when they occur
may degenerate into open hostilities andeven war. Conflicts that degenerate
into war have caused untold hardshipon the people leading to outbreak of
diseases, destruction of infrastructureand maiming or outright killing of people.
This development is noted tohave brought social changes in many parts of the
world. For example, thepeople of Afghanistan, Iraq, and Palestine etc are known
to have developed a high resistance spirit due to frequent wars.
e) Human Action: - Human action has been noted to be a majorsource of change. Human action
can be individualistic or collective.Throughout history, notable personalities
and figures have been found totake decisions and actions that have led to great
social change. AdolfHitler of Germany, Julius Ceasar of the Roman Empire
amongst other hasbeen known to have taken actions or decisions that have turn
around thefortunes of their country. Another dimension of human action is
thecollective. Collective action takes the form of social movements andrevolts.
Organizations such as pro-democracy groups, civil libertiesorganizations,
National liberation groups etc have been known to bringsocial change in the
society through collective efforts.
FACTORS THAT
AFFECT THE RATE OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change does not occur with equal rapidity in
all societies.Also some societies are more open and more receptive to change
thanothers. Many factors are responsible for this. These include:
1. changes inour physical environment (which result from
human misuse of theenvironment or from natural disaster),
2. Population changes, and
3. The extentof isolation or contact with other groups or
societies.
From
our treatmentof some sources of social change, we can arrive at inferences on
howthese factors can affect the rates of social change. Some of theseinferences
are that: constant major change in the physical environmentgives rise to
greater change in the social and cultural life of a people; thata more rapidity
growing population triggers off more social change, andthat being located in a
geographical position of contact with other culturespermits more social change
to take place.
Thus, societies change more
orless depending on whether or not they exhibit these features.
The other factors that also
affect the rate of social change are: thestructure of society and its culture,
attitudes and values of a society, theperceived needs of a society, and the
cultural base of a society.
1.The Structure of Society and Culture.
The way a society is structured affects the rate at
which socialchange occurs in that society. Studies have shown that a society
whichemphasizes conformity and loyalty to the group is less receptive to
changethan a society which encourages individual inquisitiveness, discretion
orinitiative, and which is tolerant of cultural diversity.
Again, a societywhich
ascribes knowledge, authority, and respect to its elderly members, rather than to
its educated intellectuals is more averse to social change.
Also, persons who are
educated, who hold factory jobs, and whomaintained a newspaper reading habit
were found to show morereceptiveness towards change (Ottendberg, 1959).
In societies whose culture
is highly integrated such that oneelement or aspect of the culture is tightly
inter-wined with the rest of theculture in mutually inseparable and
interdependent way, social change isless probable.
Schneider (1959) has drawn
attention to the Masai, andPakot peoples of Africa (as well as others) whose
cultures are integratedor centeredon the cattle. In these societies, cattle command
a veryhigh socio-cultural value. It provides the people with a means
ofsubsistence; it is used for the payment of bride wealth during marriage;
itserves as a means of measuring one’s social status (the quantity one
hasdetermines his position in the social ladder) and finally, it is an object
oflove and affection for its owner who loves each cattle just as he loved
thehuman members of his family
In such a culturally
integrated society where there is extremeoverlap of the economy, marriage,
family, stratification and religion etcsocial change is strongly resisted. On
the contrary societies whoseinstitutions and cultural practices are less fused
together or less dependentupon one another, tend to be more amenable to social
change.
Mostcontemporary societies
are experiencing much social change because oftheir loose and flexible social
and cultural structure; and their emphaticstress on individualism and
achievement orientation
2. Attitudes and Values of a Society
Societies differ in their attitude towards change.
Likewise, somesocieties have values which are favourable to change while others
do not.Some societies exist which cherish and revere their past. They maintain
along lasting relationship with their dead ancestors whom they recognize
asspirit to be worshipped. In this kind of society, elders are respected
andobeyed, and cultural traditions, rituals and customs are permanent
featuresin the life of the community. Attachment of this kind of
primordialessences makes little or no room for social change to take place. In
such astatic social system there is hardly any visible notice of social
change,neither is such a change considered desirable. When a people hold
suchattitudes and values that are antagonistic to change, there is a tendency
forchange to be resisted in that society.
There are however many
other societies which are open to andreceptive of change. Such societies are
usually rapidly changing becausethe prevailing attitudes and values within them
promote change. Suchvalues encourage skepticism, and at the same time
accommodate proposalfor change in institutional structures. In general, it is
certainly true oftoday’s modern societies that within them attitudes to change
are highlypositive. But in any given society, it is possible to find sections of
thepopulation that are not only conservative but also defiant of social change.
Such resistance to change
may still be explainable in terms of the valuesand attitudes held by the
relevant group or subgroup of the population. Forexample, rural farmers who refuse
to adopt new farming techniques, orvillagers who refuse to patronize modern
medical facilities but prefertraditional methods.
3.Perceived Needs of Society
The rate and direction of social change in any society
is affectingby the perceived needs of that society.
Needs are subjective
hencedifferent societies have different needs. This also means that a
needbecomes real only when a people perceived and define it as such.Naturally,
needs call for responses that will general need satisfaction. Inthe context of
social change, a society will be apt to embrace change thatwill solve its
needs. Where as it may show non-challenge to change that isneutral, or at best
not relevant to its needs.
In a very poor country, the
pressing needs may be those of food,water, and housing. Members of these poor
countries will obviously showmore interest in change programmes that will
provide them these basicrequirements. They may not be quite interested in
luxury or cosmeticitems such as exotic cars, fancy dresses, or such dispensable
commoditieswhich more prosperous countries will crave for. Thus, social change
iswidely accepted and rapid when it affects the identified needs of a society.
Hence we say that it is
perceived needs (i.e. necessity) that provide thestimulus for innovation and
social change. In the language of the wellknowncliché, necessity is the mother
of invention.
4. The Cultural Base
Members of any society normally inherit from their
ancestralpredecessors a certain variety, quantity, and quality of cultural artifacts,knowledge,
and techniques which they then begin to build upon andimprove for contemporary
usages. Such accumulation of tools,knowledge, and techniques which are
available to a society at any giventime is what is called the cultural base of
that society.The first humans on earth were the pioneers and forerunners
ofhuman culture. They did not have the privilege of inheriting any
socialexperiences from a previous generation. They invented whatever they
hadfrom the scratch. Because they lacked an existing cultural base they
couldnot achieve much by way of inventions and discoveries. The cave mancould
thus hardly go beyond the bow and arrow technology or beyondcounting by the
fingers and toes. But as the cultural base of human societygrew with succeeding
generations of Homo sapiens adding their owninventions, a yet Increasing number
of discoveries and inventions havebecome possible.
Today, so much
technological and cultural breakthroughs are beingrecorded because the present
society has accumulated so much knowledgeand information which it combines in
new ways to produce newinventions. It is believed that unless the cultural base
supplies the relevantinitial inventions and discoveries, an invention cannot be
completed.
Today’ high rate of
invention and discovery is possible because there is already in existence a
vast accumulation of scientific technical knowledgewhich is freely shared by
the global world society in a cross fertilizationof ideas and knowledge. From
this culture base still new discoveries andtechnological breakthroughs are
churned out at an exponential rate. Themore developed therefore the culture
base of a society is, the faster andmore rapidly will social change occur that
society.
COMMUNITY
ACCEPTANCE OF AND RESISTANCE TO SOCIAL CHANGE
We have identified some of the factors that affect the
rate of socialchange in society. Questions of rate are however different from
questionsthat address the acceptability of change proposal members of society.
Fora given change to occur,
not to talk of occurring rapidly or slowly, it hasfirst to be accepted by
society. There is abundant evidence that in manysocieties and at different time
period, some particular change proposalwere accepted, while some were resisted
or rejected outright.
Certainly, not all
proposals for change are accepted by the society.Rather, there is usually in
operation a process of selective acceptancewhich makes it possible for some
innovations to receive automatic orinstant acceptance, others accepted only
after a long period of persuasionand yet others accepted only in part, or
otherwise rejected totally.
Manydifferent factors are
responsible for this selective approach to acceptanceof change. These are: the
specific attitudes and values of a community, thedemonstrability of the proposal
innovation, the compatibility of theproposal change with the existing culture,
the costs of proposal changeand the role change agents. We shall now consider
each of these factors.
1. SPECIFIC ATTITUDES AND VALUES OF THE COMMUNITY
Apart from the general attitude of a community towards
change,every community has some specific attitudes and values which are tied
tocertain customary objects and practices within it culture. Within every
culture, there are certain specific practices (e.g agricultural methods
andpractices), or certain local foods etc that are valued intrinsically for
whatthey are, or for what they represent culturally to the people.
A communitymay cling to
such an age-long practice or food preference, and resistpressures towards its
substitution simply because the proposed changeviolates long-established
cultural taste, or practice, or because the newpractice shocks their cultural
sensibility by negating a cultural belief thatlay behind a practice.
There is the example of the
Biaga community of central India whowould not abandon their primitive digging
sticks to adopt the far moreeffective moldboard plow implement. Their reason
for resisting theinnovation is that the people loved the earth as a benevolent
and generousmother and as such they could not bring themselves to cut her up
withknives (i.e. with the moldboard plow). The Biaga preferred to gently
helpmother earth with the digging stick to bring forth her produce(Elwin,1939).
People’s established likes, beliefs and tastes, play a role intheir acceptance
of or resistance to change.
A
community may enthusiastically embrace a proposed adoption ofa new agricultural
seed input because of its high-yield potential. But whenin course of time the
community discovers that the resulting yield does notlend itself to the
preparation the of certain valued cultural meals, or thattaste of the new yield
does not tie with their preferred tastes, thecommunity may quickly reject the
hybrid specie and return to the use ofthe old seedling. Thus, when specific attitudes
and values are challengedor threatened by new innovations, such innovations
tend to be resisted prrejected. But when they conform to these specific
attitudes and values,such innovations are readily accepted.
2. It makes a difference as far as the acceptance of
innovation isconcerned whether the usefulness of the proposed innovation can
bedemonstrated. An innovation is more readily accepted when its usefulnesscan
be practically and easily demonstrated. When the workability of aninvention or
a proposed change cannot easily be demonstrated, acceptanceof it becomes
delayed if not unforeseeable. Many rural African wouldstick to herbal
practitioners simply because the former produce instantconformable results.
Demonstrability of innovations encourages its quickacceptance. Unfortunately,
to demonstrate some inventions or innovationswould require huge financial
expenditures. Some mechanical inventionscan be demonstrated on a small-scale
basis whereas others will requirelarge scale exhibitions that will consume
enormous time to arrange.
At the other extreme are
social inventions (e.g. the corporationdemocratic government) which cannot be
easily demonstrated in alaboratory. These however can be demonstrated in the
open society but they require a long time to try out. In comparative terms,
mechanicalinventions are more easily accepted than social inventions because of
theformer’s relative ease of demonstrability.
Unlike mechanical
inventionswhose value or workability can be demonstrated prior to acceptance, mostsocial
inventions must first be adopted before their practical value can beassessed.
This situation hinders greatly the acceptance of socialinventions.
3.Compatibility with Existing Culture
A community readily accepts an innovation when it fits
so well intothe existing culture. Some innovations dove tail perfectly into
existingcultural patterns, and thereby promote the attainment of culture
goals,while some innovations conflict with existing patterns.
Incompatibilitywith existing cultural forms can take several shapes. It can
take the formof outright conflict with existing patterns. In this case the
proposedinnovation runs counter to what is on ground. An example is
theintroduction of merit as the sole basis for hiring and promoting labour in
asociety that upholds a tradition of people recognizing an obligation to
takecare of their family members (or those they know) over and above
otheroutsiders irrespective of whether or not such relatives deserve
suchappointments or promotions, or such other relevant recognition. In
manydeveloping countries social placement based on ascription and
familyconnection (the “I.M. factor”) is gradually giving way to the principle
ofmeritocracy and social system based on achievement.
When innovation conflicts
with already existing patterns, therepossible outcomes can be anticipated:
1) The innovation may be rejected
2) The innovation may be culture in order to conform to
the made ways,and
3) The innovation may be accepted and its conflict with
the existingculture concealed or evaded through rationalization.
For instance the lawof a country or state may prohibit
polygymy (marrying more than onewife) and yet closes it eyes to those who
violate it. Non-enforcement ofthe law may be dictated by some identifiable
reasons which arepersuasive. Although it is not always the case, innovations
that are inconflict with the existing culture tend not to be accepted by the
people.
Another way in which an innovation may be incompatible
with theexisting culture is by calling for or requiring new patterns that are
notpresently existing within that culture. Some innovations that areintroduced
into a society have no existing corresponding patterns intowhich they can fit.
Given this situation what a
society does is generally toapply the unfamiliar innovation in ways identical
to the uses it puts similarelements in its culture. When the old, familiar ways
or uses fail to matchthe new innovation, society begins to develop new ways of
makingeffective use of the new element that has been introduced. In this waysociety
creates in response to the innovation, new patterns in the culturewhich are
developed over time.
When the American Indians
were given cows by the government,they first hunted them as games because of
their hunting culture. Buteventually they learnt and developed the practice of
animal husbandrysuited the cows. Many innovations generate this kind of
pressurethat lead to the development of new patterns within a culture.
Someinnovations are therefore additive in consequences.
Thirdly, an innovation may
be incompatible with the existingculture by the fact that the replace or
substitute traits. In some cases, aninnovation has required that some familiar
aspects of an existing culture be discarded and replaced with a new culture
traits or element. In manytraditional societies, many cultural values and
practices have had to givemodern social innovations in such areas as sex
equality, politicaladministration the economy and the like. Today, a trend
toward theequality of the sexes, democratic governance, and rational
businessenterprise etc have displaced the erstwhile traditional pattern.
Innovationsthat result in the discard or shedding off of some familiar elements
of theculture are less acceptable than those which add to existing traits.
4.Costs of Change
Social change nearly always carries with it certain
general andspecific costs. The general costs involved the overall disruption
ordisorganization which change visits on existing culture patterns bycausing
the discarding of or modification of certain elements of theculture, and by
undermining deeply held community values andsentiments. The specific costs of
change include the technical costs anddifficulties associated with technical
innovation.
Whenever new
technicalinventions are made, such breakthroughs are always greeted with the
fearthat the present stock of machinery and equipment are at the verge ofbeing
rendered obsolete or abandoned to waste.
This is because people’s
interest in them and subsequent demandfor them soon takes a nose-dive or
vanishes altogether. Not only therefore,does the new invention threaten and
often kill the market for market forthe now older models of machinery and
equipment, it also destroys themarket for technical skills which workers have
invested years to acquirebut which are now no longer in demand. To remain
relevant in theemerging labour market such skilled industrial workers require
retrainingin the new techniques and designs, and this is not without some
personaland social costs.
Furthermore, technical
change such as the kind that takes place inthe factory production line which
involves the introduction of automationand machine power, and the displacement
of manual labourers entails joblosses. With the introduction of automation few
workers are now neededto perform with machines the tasks that several dozens of
workerspreviously undertook. Such job losses arising from technical
changewithin the factories and industrial are certainly counted as costs to
theindividual workers who have become so disengaged.As would be expected, the
costs of social change not equallydistributed.
The industry which is
rendered obsolete, the workers whoseskill is rendered unmarketable and the
workers who are retrenched fromindustries, all as a result of technical
innovation bear directly the heavycosts of technical innovation. Consumers of
the improve products on theother hand are to the benefiting end and shouldering
no foreseeable costs.
Most social changes carry a
threat whether real or unreal. They also carrycost sometimes light sometimes
heavy. On the whole persons with vestedinterests who are threatened by social
and technical changes and whostand to incur various costs as a result of such
changes manifest atendency to oppose or resist these changes. On the other
hand, those whostand to benefit from these changes tend to accept them with
eagernessand much enthusiasm.
5. Role of the Change Agent
The acceptance of or resistance to social change is
also influencedin the role played by the change agent. It is important to the
community oracceptors of change, who the proposer of the planned change is.
Both hisidentify and how the originator of the change proposal or his agent
goesabout introduction the change, also makes a difference to the success
orotherwise of the change programme.
Change proposal which are
firstembraced or adopted by persons who are important powerful andrespected in
society tend to be accepted more rapidly by the rest ofsociety. On the other
hand, innovations which are first adopted by personsof low status in society
are less likely to be embraced by the rest ofsociety, or at best adopted rather
slowly and reluctantly by those at theupper echelons of society. This view is
instructive for change agents whodesire to make success of their project.
Change agents must also
make the proposed change appearharmless by identifying or connecting it with
familiar elements of thereceiving culture. By suggesting compatibility in this
manner the people are helped to perceive the intended change as a useful
addition ormodification to their culture complex. This of course presupposes
that thechange agent must have a good knowledge of the culture within which
heis working. Otherwise he cannot successfully identify or tie his
proposedchange with existing features of the culture in question.
Change agents must
comprehensively understand the interrelationsof the culture which they tend to
impact. It is only this way that they cansuccessfully manage or implement the
change programme, as well aspredict the likely consequences of the proposed
changes withoutunderstanding the people and their culture, the change agent may
slideinto costly mistake and assumptions that will mar the success of
anotherwise well planned project.Perhaps a change agent who is a stranger to
another culture shouldfirst observe that culture with a view to understudying
it for a period oftime. This is a mandatory first step if his efforts are not
to be counterproductive.
RELIGION AND CONFLICTS IN NIGERIA
Introduction
In this unit, we will be looking at religion and
conflicts in Nigeria.The arbitrary colonial demarcations have placed people
with differingcultural and religious background together to form entities that
are notcompatible with each other. This has over the years been the root
ofconflicts that have engulfed Nigeria. We will therefore look at the place
ofreligion in conflicts in Nigeria; the causes of religious conflicts and
theeffects such conflicts have on the society.
The Place of Religion in Conflicts in Nigeria
The phenomenon of religion has been proved to unite people
inmany societies of the world. In Nigeria however, religion has thrown
thecountry into series of conflicts of alarming dimension.
The plural natureof the
Nigerian society may have worsened matters as the differentnationalities have
different religious beliefs. The religious situation inNigeria is such that
every conflict that appears to be politically motivatedends up turning
religious. This is because people find it easy to generatesupport and
membership when religion is involved in any conflict.
Thebackground to religious
conflicts in Nigeria is traceable to the activities ofcolonialism which have
arbitrarily demarcated and placed people ofdifferent religious entities and
background into single group orcommunity. In most situations, those groups are
in mutual distrust of eachother. Also the development of commerce and the
emergence of citiesensure that people travel to distant places to buy and sell
goods andservices. Many of these businessmen and women became settlers in
citieswhere they own large shops.
Again, the establishment of
schools andindustries attracted a pool of people to cities where they work for
salariedwage. Through these processes, cities like Kano, Zaria, Ibadan, Lagos
etcbecame full of people of different religious background. This has been
thecase of religious conflicts in Kano, Jos, Maiduguri and Kaduna.
Thepresent day religious
conflicts in Kano can only be clearly understoodwithin the context of modern
migrations into the city (Otite 1999). This isa reference to the influx of Southern
Nigerians into the city for trade. Thefirst church in Kano was established in
1911. The colonial urbandevelopment policy restricted the construction of
churches to the SabonGari area. Up to the early 1980s there was no open
hostility between theChristians and Muslims in Kano. This situation began to
change in the late1980s. There was a rapid growth of Christian Churches in
Nigeria, withmany of their members professing ‘born again’ theology. The manner
inwhich most of these born again Churches carry out their activities oftenbring
them into open hostilities with their Muslim counterparts. Thesituation in Kano
is not very different from other cities such as Kaduna,Jos and Zaria that have
recently become centers of religious unrest in thecountry.
The way Christians
propagate their faith has sometimes beenconsidered objectionable to Muslims.
For example, when preachingChristians usually present Jesus as the only way to
the kingdom of God,all other ways including the Islamic way would only lead one
to hell.This type of preaching is conducted in buses, market places, churches
andat dawn and as such anger Muslims.
Over the years several
religiousconflicts have occurred in Jos, Zaria, Kano and Kaduna. There was
Faggecrisis in 1992, the Reinhard Bonnke riot of 1991, the Jos crisis
ofSeptember 2001 and the Kaduna riots.
CAUSES OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS
A number of causes of religious conflicts have been
identified.Some of which include:
1. The problem of cultural integration
Religious conflicts involving Christians and Muslims
have beentraceable to the problem of cultural integration. In Nigeria, when a
personmigrate from his place of origin to another, he finds himself threatened
or intimidated by the dominant social, political, cultural and religious
groups.
The migrant in Nigeria
continue to be arrogated the status of a migrant nomatter how long he lives in
his new community. Such a migrant is facedwith three major problems of
survival; assimilation, pacific co-existenceand animosity (Samin Amin: 1974).
Where the migrant refuse toassimilate due to deep rooted religious differences
they are bound to betreated with animosity especially when efforts at pacific
co-existence failto produce the desired results. This is true in the case of
religious conflictsinvolving Christians and Muslims in the Northern part of
Nigeria.
ThoughSoutherners has lived
in many parts of Northern Nigeria since the early twentieth Century, most of them
saw themselves as strangers. Theyresisted cultural assimilation. To be
completely assimilated and acceptedby the local inhabitant’s one need to accept
Islam and dress in the usualHausa long robe, a situation the Christians
objected.
Also the Igbo Christian is
considered to exert control overcommercial businesses in the Northern areas where
they find themselves,for example, the Igbo Christian is known to be in control
of 80% of thetotal business activities around the Sabongari settlement. The
indigenesmisconstrued this as monopoly which they vow to break. Indeed, the
1995crisis at Sabongari market in Kano stems from this fact. It was allegedthat
the Igbo discourage and intimidate other ethnic groups form settingup shops in
the market and were paying landlords higher rents as a wayof depriving the
local Hausa-Fulani people access to such shops.
2. Religious Intolerance and Fanaticism.
There is high degree of religious intolerance among
Christians andMuslims in Nigeria. This partly explains why every conflict in
Nigeria hasa religious undertone. In the North where most religious conflicts
takeplace, religious intolerance cut across all religious groups. The
Muslimsare opposed to Christians and the orthodox Muslims would have nothingto
do with the members of the fundamental sects. The Muslims wouldwant the
Christians to respect the Islamic religion as the Koran hasenjoined the Muslim
to respect people of the book. In any case, such arespect is lacking in the
case of Muslim-Christian relationship in Nigeria.
Christians openly preach to denounce the Islamic faith
and woulddistribute hand bills considered offensive when organizing crusades.
TheMuslim on the other hand would not tolerate foul language and
generaldisregard to their religion. This was the immediate cause of the
ReinhardBonke riots in Kano in 1991.
3. The Influence of Non-Nigerian Muslim Migrants.
The conflict situation is often aggravated by the
presence of Muslimimmigrants from neighboring Chad Republic, Niger and other
NorthAfrican Countries. The majority of fighters who took part in
maitatsinewars were found to be Non-Nigerians. In every religious fight that
occursin the North, police arrest has indicated that many of the fighters are
Non-Nigerians.
4. Urban Poverty:
-
Poverty is important in understanding how Muslim
fundamentalist recruittheir men that are used in executing religious riots.
Most of the peoplewho fought on the side of the maitatsine in 1980 were the
urban poor anddestitute. Many of these recruits are young men who came to the
city tolook for jobs but found none and decided to stay on their own. These
areoften recruited and used by the militants to destabilize the society.
IMPACT OF
RELIGIOUS CONFLICT ON THE SOCIETY
Religious Conflicts has damaging impact on the
society. During eachreligious conflict several hundreds of lives and property
worth millions ofNaira are lost.These losses are experienced by both the
original indigenes and settlers intheir midst. This has forced strangers to
move to other cities that are lessviolent. The impact of this movement is the
gradual decline in businessactivities. The religious conflicts also divided the
people of the affectedareas. The much expressed unity, stability and trusts is
nonexistent as aresult of riots and killings that ensued. Consequently, no one
is any longerhis brother’s keeper as trust no longer prevails.
Agricultural activities are
also grounded as people who areexpected to farm crops no longer feel safe on
the farms. Every religiouscrisis goes with it the destruction of markets where
Agricultural producecan be sold. Also, transportation is disrupted and this
goes a long way toaffect Agricultural production.
Public utilities are
deliberately vandalized and damaged. Electricalinstallations, telecommunication
equipment and water works are damaged.Unreliable or poor performance of public
utilities will affect productivity.
The provision of social amenities is also affected;
schools, hospitals,clinics, markets, parks and estates are destroyed. Religious
buildingsbecome targets of destruction by rioters.
INVOLVEMENT OF RELIGION IN POLITICAL ACTIVITIES IN
NIGERIA
Introduction
The involvement of religion in political activities
inNigeria dates back to the pre-colonial period. By 1940s embryonicpolitical
associations began to be organized by the educated youths whowere exposed to
nationalist thought from abroad. One major characteristicof these early
political associations was that they were highly tribalized. Inthis chapter
therefore we shall examine the role of Religion in politics in Nigeria. We will
examine the historical development of the involvementof Religion in politics from
pre-colonial period to the present day.
The Role of Religion in Politics in Nigeria
The Role of religion in politics in Nigeria is
traceable to the pre-independencebuilt up as formation of political
associations began to takeroot. Indeed, Christian missionaries were
instrumental to the formation ofpolitical associations and in raising the
political consciousness of the localpeople.
The radical political
changes after the Second World Wartransformed the framework of missionary
strategy as well as therelationship between missionaries and converts. They
were aware of thefact that if not the right people emerge as leaders after
independence, theirefforts may be in vain. Fear was based on the experiences of
missionariesin China in 1949, when they were expelled from the country.
Thus, themissionaries
became sensitive about political change which threatenedtheir work. In central
Nigeria, for example, in order to present acoordinated response to the
political situation, the missionaries met atBukuru Jos in 1948 to consider a
Christian response. The churches resolveto raise the consciousness of members
and to warm them about thedangers of refusing to involve themselves in
political activities.
Besides,there was the fear
of Muslim domination of Christians in the politicalarrangements. This lead to
the formation of the Northern Non-MuslimLeague (NNML) in 1949 under the leadership
of Pastor David Lot By1950, the Northern Non- Muslim League was renamed the
middle zoneLeague (MZL). As the 1951 elections drew nearer, it became very
obviousto Christians that Muslims would dominate the new political era in
thecountry. Churches became the rallying point for the Christians and
themissionaries began to instill in their clergy and converts, the idea of
animpending Muslim domination and the need to sit up. The churchesbecame
involved in political campaigns. The problem was not that of thecredibility of
the candidate, it became a matter of from which religiousbackground he comes
from.
Christian Politicians
justify their involvement in politics by usingthe Bible. They sought not only
the political kingdom, but the kingdom ofGod as well. Their work was therefore
to unite the two into a Christianpolitical kingdom.
The Christians and Muslims
alike sought to participatein politics so as to improve the infrastructure,
health system, education,economy and the judiciary. They wanted to provide
direction in politicssince many have perceived politics as a dirty game. The
role of religiontherefore is to sanitize and provide direction to politics for
the benefit ofhumanity. It is in the light of the above thinking that religious
bodies rosestrongly to condemn the annulment of June 12 elections widely
believedto have been won by chief MoshoodAbiola.
This is a job well done.But I discover that the above material is the same with what National Open University gave to their students on Soc.of Rel.which can be downloaded online.I don't know who copied who because it is verbatim-word for word.I'm not happy that Africans can be original scholarly speaking.You can crosscheck whether they copied you or you copied them.Plagiarism is a serious copyright infringement crime.Thanks
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